Visual Development Diagnosis and Treatment of the Pediatric Patient-2판

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contributors
Contributors to the Previous Edition
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Introduction

Part 1: The Development of Vision

1: Development of the Visual System
Building A Transparent Optical System
The Embryonic Period (First 2 Months of Gestation)
The Fetal Period (9 Weeks to Birth)
Summary
Building A Neural Visual System
Formation of the Principal Neural Structures
Axon Growth and Guidance
Synapse Formation
Summary
References

2: Visual Acuity in the Young Child
Nature or Nurture
Early Research on Infant Visual Acuity
Research on Forced-Choice Preferential Looking
Visual Evoked Potentials
Optokinetic Nystagmus
Comparing FPL and VEP
Adaptive Computerized Test of Infant Vision
Vernier Acuity (Hyperacuity)
Visual Acuity Interpretation in the Clinic
Summary
References

3: Contrast Sensitivity Function
Definitions and Nomenclature for Contrast Sensitivity Testing
Components of the Contrast Sensitivity Function
Contrast Sensitivity Test Parameters
Subjective Versus Objective
Symbols Versus Sine-Wave Gratings
Printed Versus Projected
Full Versus Limited Contrast Sensitivity Function
Single Target Versus Multiple Targets
Contrast Sensitivity Tests
Sine-Wave Gratings
Symbols
Visual Evoked Potential
Development of Contrast Sensitivity in Humans
Conditions that Affect Contrast Sensitivity
Environmental Factors
Precorneal Optics
Ocular Optics
Neurologic
Pathologic
Conclusion
References

4: Refractive Error
Emmetropization
Emmetropization as a Passive Process
Emmetropization as an Active Process
Animal Studies
Human Studies
Elements of Emmetropization
The Effect of Optical Intervention on Emmetropization
Refractive Status of Infant and Childhood Groups
Developmental Aspects of Hyperopia, Myopia, Anisometropia, and Astigmatism
Myopia
Myopia Progression
Hyperopia
Accommodative Esotropia
Congenital Conditions
Anisometropia
Astigmatism
Summary
References

5: Eye Movements
Saccadic Eye Movements
Basic Features of Saccadic Movements in Adults
Saccadic Movements in Infants
Mechanisms
Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements
Basic Features of Smooth Pursuit Movements in Adults
Smooth Pursuit Movements in Infants
Mechanisms
Vergence Eye Movements
Basic Features of Vergence Movements in Adults
Vergence Movements in Infants
The Development of Disparity Vergence
Mechanisms
The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex
Basic Features of the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex in Adults
The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex in Infants
Mechanisms
Optokinetic Nystagmus
Basic Features of Optokinetic Nystagmus in Adults
Optokinetic Nystagmus in Infants
Mechanisms
Discussion and Summary
Acknowledgment
References

6: Accommodation
Tonic Accommodation
Proximally Induced Accommodation
Convergent Accommodation
Blur-Driven Accommodation
Summary
References

7: Binocular Vision
Ocular Alignment and Convergence (Bifoveal Fixation)
Sensory Fusion
Stereopsis
Onset of Stereopsis
Development of Stereopsis
Anatomic and Physiologic Basis of Stereopsis
Sensitive Period
Risk Factors for Reduced Binocular Function
References

8: Color Vision
Testing Infants’ Color Vision
Behavioral Methods
Physiologic Methods
General Problems With Tests of Infants
Spectral Sensitivity
Scotopic Spectral Sensitivity
Infants’ Spectral Sensitivity
Preretinal Light Absorption
Purkinje Shift
Photopic Spectral Sensitivity
Chromatic Discrimination
Emergence of Color Vision
Cone Types and Neuronal Mechanisms
L- and M-Cones: Behavioral Methods
L- and M-Cones: Physiologic Methods
S-Cones: Behavioral Methods
S-Cones: Physiologic Methods
Color Appearance and Color Categories
Why Is Infant Color Vision Poor?
Noise
Poor Contrast Sensitivity
Maturation of the Nervous System
Beyond Infancy
Conclusions
References

9: Development of a Normal Child
Normal Pregnancy
Prenatal Development
Birth
Labor and Delivery
Newborn Assessment and Care
Reflexes
Motor Development
Cognitive Development
Emotional and Social Development
Infant
Toddler
Preschool and School Age
Language Development
Conclusion
References

10: Visual Concerns in the Child With Special Needs
Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Learning Disability
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Acquired Brain Injury
Cortical (Cerebral) Visual Impairment
Down Syndrome
Cerebral Palsy
Intellectual Disability
Modifications to the Optometric Examination
Visual Acuity Testing
Binocular Vision Testing
Accommodative Testing
Ocular Motor Function
Refractive Error Assessment
Ocular Health
Visual Perceptual Evaluation
Treatment
Lenses
Prism
Eyeglass Frame Selection
Vision Therapy/Visual Rehabilitation
Conclusion
References

Part 2: Evaluation of Visual Function

11: The Pediatric Case History
Case History
Chief Complaint
History of Present Illness
Past Ocular History
Patient Medical History
Pregnancy and Birth History
Developmental History
Family Medical History
Social History
Conclusions
References
Appendix A
Appendix B

12: Infant, Toddler, and Children’s Visual Acuity—Practical Aspects
Infant Visual Acuity
Forced-Choice Preferential Looking
Teller Visual Acuity Cards
Lea Gratings
Face-Dot Paddles
Visual Evoked Potential
Informal Visual Acuity Techniques
Toddler Visual Acuity
Cardiff Acuity Test
Broken Wheel Cards
Lea Symbols Test
Patti Pics
HOTV Chart
Landolt C
Tumbling E
School-Aged Visual Acuity
Snellen Charts
LogMAR
Specialized Testing
References

13: Abnormalities of the Anterior Segment
Adnexa and Lids
Capillary Hemangioma
Dermoid
Chalazia and Hordeola
Eyelid Laceration
Congenital Blepharoptosis
Blepharitis
Ectropion
Entropion
Coloboma
Congenital Arteriovenous Malformation
Congenital Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction
Dacryocystocele
Cellulitis
Molluscum Contagiosum
Conjunctiva
Foreign Body
Laceration
Conjunctivitis
Cornea
Corneal Abrasions and Foreign Bodies
Superficial Punctate Keratitis
Dry Eye Syndrome
Corneal Dystrophies
Structural Anomalies of the Cornea
Iris
Uveitis
Anterior Segment Dysgenesis
Axenfeld–Rieger Syndrome
Peters’ Anomaly
Aniridia
Glaucoma
Primary Glaucoma
Secondary Glaucoma
Lens
Cataract
Lens Subluxation
References

14: Abnormalities of the Posterior Segment
Assessment
Ciliary Body
Posterior Uveitis
Panuveitis
Vitreous
Persistent Fetal Vasculature
Retina
Developmental Anomalies
Vascular Anomalies
Genetic Disorders
Juvenile Macular Degenerations
Familial Exudative Vitreoretinopathy
Angioid Streaks
Neoplasia
Retinoblastoma
Systemic Disease
Child Abuse
Congenital Hypertrophy of the RPE
Glaucoma
References

15: Assessment and Anomalies of Neurologic Function
Afferent Visual System
Assessment of the Afferent Visual System
Afferent Visual System Anomalies
Efferent Visual System
Assessment of the Efferent Visual System
Efferent Visual System Anomalies
References

16: Quantification of Refractive Error
Dry Retinoscopy
Instrumentation
Fixation Targets
Technique
Cycloplegic Retinoscopy
Medications
Methods
Mohindra Retinoscopy
Subjective Refraction
Visual Evoked Potentials
Autorefraction
Background
Features
Types
Instruments
Photorefraction
Background
Types of Systems
Instruments
Summary
References

17: Pediatric and Adolescent Contact Lens Correction
Medically Necessary Contact Lenses
Indications
Lens Options
Contact Lens Power
Contact Lens Fit Assessment
Application and Removal
Wear Schedule
Follow-Up Care
Spectacles
Amblyopia Therapy
Infant Aphakia Versus Infant Intraocular Lens
Elective Contact Lenses
Risks of Elective Contact Lens Wear in Children
Myopia Control
How Contact Lenses Slow Myopic Eye Growth
Off-Label Use of Contact Lenses for Myopia Control
Soft Multifocal Contact Lenses
Orthokeratology
Comparison of Myopia Control Using Soft Multifocal and Orthokeratology Contact Lenses
Myopia Control Discussion With Parents
Summary
References

18: Evaluation of Ocular Motor Function
Light Reflex Tests
Brückner Test
Hirschberg Test
Krimsky Test
Cover Testing
Unilateral Cover Testing
Alternate Cover Testing
Simultaneous Cover Test
Confounding Factors in the Assessment of Ocular Alignment in Young Children
Versions and Ductions
Saccades
Vergence
Summary
References

19: Assessing Stereopsis and Fusion
Why Test for Stereopsis and Fusion in Infants and Children?
Stereopsis and Stereoacuity
Measuring Stereopsis
Randot Stereo Test
Titmus Stereo Fly Test
Distance Stereopsis Tests
Stereopsis as A Vision Training Tool
Clinical Testing Considerations
Filter Considerations
Age Considerations
Screening Considerations
Strabismus and Amblyopia Considerations
Fusion
Measuring Fusion
Tests Measuring Ocular Alignment: Phoria
Tests Measuring Ocular Alignment: Fixation Disparity and Associated Phoria
Tests Measuring Fusional Vergence
Smooth Vergence Ranges
Step Vergence Ranges
Vergence Facility
Sensory Fusion Ranges
Indirect Measures of Fusional Vergence
Near Point of Convergence
Negative Relative Accommodation/Positive Relative Accommodation
Binocular Accommodative Facility
Tests Measuring Different Levels of Fusion
Worth 4-Dot
Keystone Visual Skills Cards
Cheiroscopic Tracing Test
Van Orden Star Test
Computer-Based Testing
Computer Orthoptics VTS 4
RightEye
G LABS: Opto App
Virtual Reality
Summary
Clinical Relevance of Stereopsis Testing
Clinical Relevance of Fusion Testing
References

20: Evaluation of Accommodation
Importance of Evaluating Accommodation
Evaluation of Accommodation
Clinical Tests
Accommodative Amplitude
Accommodative Response
Accommodative Facility
Relative Accommodation
Test Norms and Parameters
Accommodative Amplitude
Accommodative Response
Accommodative Facility
Relative Accommodation
Diagnosis of Accommodative Dysfunction
Classification
Case History
Accommodative Insufficiency
Ill-Sustained Accommodation
Accommodative Excess or Accommodative Spasm
Accommodative Infacility
Paresis or Paralysis of Accommodation
Treatment of Accommodative Disorders
Summary
References

21: Pediatric Color Vision Testing
Color Vision History
Significance of Test Design
Color Vision Tests
Anomaloscopy
Pseudoisochromatic Plates
Arrangement Tests
Computer-Based Color Vision Tests
General Testing Considerations
Lighting
Test Distance
Time Exposure
Test Batteries
Birth to Two Years
Three Years to Five Years
Six Years to Eight Years
Nine Years and Above
Management
Counseling
Tints for Color Deficiency
Technology
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

22: Evaluation Strategies Using Electrodiagnostics
Clinical Guidelines
Visual Evoked Potential/Visual Evoked Response
Electrode Types
Targets for VEP
Spatial Frequency
Speed of Reversals—Temporal Frequency
VEP/VER Analysis
10% Rule—A General Guideline
A Case of Amblyopia
Strabismus
End-to-End Testing
Electroretinogram
Classic or Bright Flash ERG
Multifocal ERG
Electrooculogram
Conclusion
References

Part 3: Treatment Strategies

23: Prescribing Lenses for the Pediatric Patient
Factors to Consider
Clinician Surveys
Prescribing Recommendations by Refractive Condition
The Big Picture
General Recommendations
References

24: Strabismus: Development, Diagnostics, and Rehabilitation
Introduction
Advantages of Strabismus
Diagnosis of Strabismus in the Pediatric Population
Refraction
Refractive State and Strabismus
Off-Axis Retinoscopy
Mohindra Retinoscopy
Cycloplegic Refraction
Visual Acuity
Amblyopic “Behavior” During Acuity Testing
Using Different Types of Acuity Tests
Monocular Fixation
Eccentric Fixation (EF)
Tests for Eccentric Fixation
Ocular Alignment
Cover Test
Hirschberg, Krimsky, and Brückner Tests
The Accommodative-Vergence Relationship
Comitance
Incomitant Deviations
Testing Incomitant Deviations
Vertical Incomitance
Sensory Adaptations
Suppression
Anomalous Correspondence (Anomalous Projection)
Treatment of Strabismus
What Constitutes Successful Treatment of Strabismus?
Optometric Strabismus Treatment Options/Strategies
Lens-Based Treatment
Prism-Based Treatment (Without Active Vision Therapy)
Occlusion-Based Treatment (Without Active Vision Therapy)
Refractive Guidance and Home-Based Vision Therapy Activities
In-Office Optometric Vision Therapy Treatment Strategies
Adjunct Home-Based Vision Therapy Activities
Referring for Strabismus Intervention
When to Refer? And to Whom?
Maintenance and Long-term Follow-up Care
References

25: Amblyopia: Diagnosis and Treatment
Introduction
Current Clinical Definition
Prevalence
Risk Factors Associated with Amblyopia
Is There Such A Thing as an Amblyopic Eye?
Classification of Amblyopia
Diagnosing Amblyopia
History
Assessment of Visual Acuity
Assessment of Fixation
Assessment of Binocular Vision
Additional Testing
Retinoscopy/Refraction
Assessment of Ocular Health
Amblyopia Treatment
Refractive Correction: Optical Treatment
Patching/Occlusion
Effect of Strabismus
Monitoring of Treatment
Frequency of Visits
Modification of Therapy
Factors Affecting Prognosis
Patient Education
Compliance
Psychological Impact
Effect of Age
Clinical Characteristics of Amblyopia
Future Predictive Measures for Prognosis
Active Vision Therapy
Therapy Concept Routes
Historic Methods
Evidence Base
Therapeutic Sequence for Vision Therapy
Conclusion
References

26: Vision Therapy for Young Children
Introduction
Five Key Vision Training Areas—Fixate, Follow, Focus, Fuse, and Figure-Out
Assessment of Visual Processing Skills
Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (BeeryTM VMI)
Gesell Developmental Copy Forms Test
Gesell Incomplete Man Test
Goodenough Draw-A-Person Test
Gesell Cube Block Construction
Form Board Puzzles
Wachs Analysis of Cognitive Structures (WACS)
Standing Angels in the Snow
Visual Skills Training
Adapting Vision Training Activities for Young or Developmentally Delayed Patients
Clinical Pearls From Linda Sanet, COVT
Vision Therapy Activities
Vision Therapy Approach
Tracking Activities: Oculomotor Skills
References

27: Sports Vision
References

28: An Approach to the Care and (Re)Habilitation of the Pediatric Patient With Visual and Other Impairments
Introduction
Cortical/Cerebral Vision Impairment: Background and Approach to Evaluation and Management
Epidemiology of Visual Impairment in Children
Educational Services and Summary of Additional Rehabilitation Service Providers
Assessment of Visual Function in the Child With Vision Impairment: Modifying Your Examination
Assessment of Print Size and Reading Ability
Considering Visual Assistive Equipment
Cases
Conclusion
References
Index